Concepts of Evolution and DNA in Biology

Concepts of Evolution and DNA in Biology Because the fossil record did not exhibit Darwins predicted slow and gradual evolution with transitional forms, some paleontologists sought to find a theory of evolution where, changes in populations might occur too rapidly to leave many transitional fossils (see Figure from Gould and Eldredge 1977 . In 1972, Gould and Eldredge proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium where most evolution takes place in small populations over relatively rapid geological time periods. By reducing the numerical size of the transitional population and the number of years for which it exists, punctuated equilibrium greatly limits the number of organisms bearing transitional characteristics. Since many organisms are not fossilized, this increases the likelihood that transitional forms would not be fossilized. One strength of this theory is that Gould and Eldredge claim it is predicted by population genetics. But what are the implications of punctuated equilibrium? Under punctuated equilibrium, species usually change little as, gradual change is not the normal state of a species. Large populations may experience, minor adaptive modifications of fluctuating effect through time but will rarely transform in toto to something fundamentally new. This is called stasis. But small peripheral populations may allow for more change at a quicker rate. Gould argued that most macroevolutionary change takes place in such populations during speciation such that there is insufficient time for the transitional forms to be fossilized: Speciation, the process of macroevolution, is a process of branching. And this branching â‚ ¬Ã‚ ¦ is so rapid in geological translation (thousands of years at most compared with millions for the duration of most fossil species) that its results should generally lie on a bedding plane, not through the thick sedimentary sequence of a long hillslope. What is meant by phylogeny? Give an account on phylogeny of humans. Ans- The context of evolutionary biology is phylogeny, the connections between all groups of organisms as understood by ancestor/descendant relationships. Not only is phylogeny important for understanding paleontology, but paleontology in turn contributes to phylogeny. Many groups of organisms are now extinct, and without their fossils we would not have as clear a picture of how modern life is interrelated. We express the relationships among groups of organisms through diagrams called cladograms, which are like genealogies of species. Phylogenetics, the science of phylogeny, is one part of the larger field of systematics, which also includes taxonomy. Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying the diversity of organisms. In humans- it is used to the transfer of genes. In general, organisms can inherit genes in two ways: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. Vertical gene transfer is the passage of genes from parent to offspring, and horizontal gene transfer or lateral gene transfer occurs when genes jump between unrelated organisms, a common phenomenon in prokaryotes. Horizontal gene transfer has complicated the determination of phylogenies of organisms, and inconsistencies in phylogeny have been reported among specific groups of organisms depending on the genes used to construct evolutionary trees. Carl Woese came up with the three-domain theory of life (eubacteria, archaea and eukaryotes) based on his discovery that the genes encoding ribosomal RNA are ancient and distributed over all lineages of life with little or no horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, rRNAs are commonly recommended as molecular clocks for reconstructing phylogenies. This has been particularly useful for the phylogeny of microorganisms, to which the species concept does not apply and which are too morphologically simple to be classified based on phenotypic traits. DNA is genetic material. Describe two classical experiments to support this statement. Ans- Clarification came during the First World War. During the war, hundreds of thousands of servicemen died from pneumonia, a lung infection caused by the baceterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. In the early 1920s, a young British army medical officer named Frederick Griffith began studying Streptococcus pneumoniae in his laboratory in the hopes of developing a vaccine against it. As so often happens in scientific research, Griffith never found what he was looking for (there is still no vaccine for pneumonia), but instead, he made one of the most important discoveries in the field of biology: a phenomenon he called transformation. Dr. Griffith had isolated two strains of S. pneumoniae, one of which was pathogenic (meaning it causes sickness or death, in this case, pneumonia), and one which was innocuous or harmless. The pathogenic strain looked smooth under a microscope due to a protective coat surrounding the bacteria and so he named this strain S, for smooth. The harmless strain of S. pneumoniae lacked the protective coat and appeared rough under a microscope, so he named it R, for rough . Dr. Griffith observed that if he injected some of the S strain of S. pneumoniae into mice, they would get sick with the symptoms of pneumonia and die, while mice injected with the R strain did not become sick. Next, Griffith noticed that if he applied to the S strain of bacteria, then injected them into mice, the mice would no longer get sick and die. He thus hypothesized that excessive heat kills the bacteria, something that other scientists, including Louis Pasteur, had already shown with other types of bacteria. However, Dr. Griffith didnt stop there he decided to try something: he mixed living R bacteria (which are not pathogenic) with heat-killed S bacteria, then he injected the mixture into mice. Surprisingly, the mice got pneumonia infections and eventually died (Figure 3). Dr. Griffith examined samples from these sick mice and saw living S bacteria. This meant that either the S bacteria came back to life, an unlikely scenario, or the live R strain was somehow transformed into the S strain. Thus, after repeating this experiment many times, Dr. Griffith named this phenomenon transformation. This discovery was significant because it showed that organisms can somehow be genetically re-programmed into a slightly different version of themselves. One strain of bacteria, in this case the R strain of S. pneumoniae, can be changed into something else, presumably because of the transfer of genetic material from a donor, in this case the heat-killed S strain. Scientists around the world began repeating this experiment, but in slightly different ways, trying to discover exactly what was happening. It became clear that, when the S bacteria are killed by heat, they break open and many substances are released. Something in this mixture can be absorbed by living bacteria, leading to a genetic transformation. But because the mixture contains protein, RNA, DNA, lipids, and carbohydrates, the question remained which molecule is the transforming agent? This question was examined in several ways, most famously by three scientists working at The Rockefeller Institute (now Rockefeller University) in New York: Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty. These scientists did almost exactly what Griffith did in his experiments but with the following changes. First, after heat-killing the S strain of bacteria, the mixture was separated into six test tubes. Thus, each of the test tubes would contain the unknown transforming agent. A different enzyme was then added to each tube except one the control which received nothing. To the other five tubes, one of the following enzymes was added: RNase, an enzyme that destroys RNA; protease, an enzyme that destroys protein; DNase, an enzyme that destroys DNA; lipase, an enzyme that destroys lipids; or a combination of enzymes that break down carbohydrates. The theory behind this experiment was that if the transforming agent was, for example, protein the transforming agent would be destroyed in the test tube containing protease, but not the others. Thus, whatever the transforming agents was, the liquid in one of the tubes would no longer be able to transform the S. pneumonia strains. When they did this, the result was both dramatic and clear. The liquid from the tubes that received RNase, protease, lipase, and the carbohydrate-digesting enzymes was still able to transform the R strain of pneumonia into the S strain. However, the liquid that was treated with DNase completely lost the ability to transform the bacteria . Thus, it was apparent that the transforming agent in the liquid was DNA. To further demonstrate this, the scientists took liquid extracted from heat-killed S. pneumoniae (S strain) and subjected it to extensive preparation and purification, isolating only the pure DNA from the mixture. This pure DNA was also able to transform the R strain into the S strain and generate pathogenic S. pneumoniae. These results provided powerful evidence that DNA, and not protein, was actually the genetic material inside of living cells. PART-B Do the two strands of DNA duplex carry the same genetic information? Explain. Ans:- No,the two strands of dna duplex carry different information ,because  complementary  base pairs  binding to form a  double helix.The two chains are wound round each other and linked together by hydrogen bonds between specific complementary bases to form a spiral ladder-shaped moleculeThe stabilization of  duplex  (double-stranded) DNA is also dependent on base stacking. The planar, rigid bases stack on top of one another, much like a stack of coins. Since the two purine.pyrimidine pairs (A.T and C.G) have the same width, the bases stack in a rather uniform fashion. Stacking near the center of the helix affords protection from chemical and environmental attack. Both hydrophobic interactions andvan der Waals forces  hold bases together in stacking interactions. About half the stability of the DNA helix comes from hydrogen bonding, while base stacking provides much of the rest. What is the difference between Z and B- DNAs? ANS:- Z-DNA  is one of the many possible double helical structures of  DNA. It is a left-handed double helical structure in which the double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern. alternating  purine-pyrimidine  sequence (especially poly(dGC)2), negative  DNA supercoiling  or high salt and some  cations  (all at physiological temperature, 37 °C, and pH 7.3-7.4). Z-DNA can form a junction (called a B-to-Z junction box) in a structure which involves the extrusion of a base pair.  The Z-DNA conformation has been difficult to study because it does not exist as a stable feature of the double helix. Instead, it is a transient structure that is occasionally induced by biological activity and then quickly disappears. B-DNA It is an antiparallel double helix.It is a right-handed helix. The base-pairs are perpendicular to the axis of the helix. (Actually, they are very slightly tilted at an angle of 4 degrees)The axis of the helix passes through the centre of the base pairs.Each base pair is rotated by 36 degrees from the adjacent base pair.The base-pairs are stacked 0.34 nm apart from one another.The double helix repeats every 3.4 nm, i.e. the pitch of the double helix is 3.4 nm.B-DNA has two distinct grooves: a MAJOR groove; and, a MINOR groove. These grooves form as a consequence of the fact that the beta-glycosidic bonds of the two bases in each base pair are attached on the same edge. However, because the axis of the helix passes through the centre of the base pairs, both grooves are similar in depth. 6. What is the role of RNA in DNA replication? ANS:- RNA WAS NEED TO INTIATE THE TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS.   On the lagging strand, primase builds an RNA primer in short bursts. DNA polymerase is then able to use the free 3 OH group on the RNA primer to synthesize DNA in the 5 † Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 3 direction. The RNA fragments are then removed (different mechanisms are used in eukaryotes and prokaryotes) and new deoxyribonucleotides are added to fill the gaps where the RNA was present. DNA ligase is then able to ligate the deoxyribonucleotides together, completing the synthesis of the lagging strand. This rna primer was a short strand of RNA that is synthesized along single-stranded DNA during replication, initiating DNA polymerase-catalyzed synthesis of the complementarystrand.  

The Effect of Different Isotopes on Atomic Mass (Chemistry Lab)

The Effect of Different Isotopes on Atomic Mass Introduction: An isotope is a variation of an atom that already exists. An isotope is different from an atom because of the number of neutrons in its nucleus. Finding the amount of neutrons in an atom can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number of a specific atom from its atomic mass. When looking at the periodic table, the atomic mass in the top left corner of every box is a decimal. The mass is in decimal format because the number listed is an average of that atom, plus all of its isotopes.Isotopes have different masses because neutrons weigh 1 amu where as an electrons weight would be negligible. The experiment described below shows how including all isotopes of one element effect the average atomic mass of the element. Materials: 1. Calculator 2. Whitium sample 3. Brownium sample 4. Blackium sample 5. 3 plastic cups 6. Electronic balance 7. Data table Procedure: 1. Separate the whitium, brownium, and blackium samples from eac h other. 2. Find the mass of 1 cup with the electronic balance. 3.Put the different samples in separate cups and count the number of beans in each cup; write those numbers in the data table. 4. Find the total number of beans. 5. Find the mass of each cup of beans (using the electronic balance) and subtract the mass of the cup. Write these numbers in the data table. 6. Divide the mass of each sample by its respective amount of beans to find the average mass of one bean. Write these numbers in the data table. 7. Divide the number of beans from 1 sample by the total number of beans to find the percent of the total that that particular isotope takes up.Do this for each of the samples. Record these numbers in the data table. 8. To find the average atomic mass of beanium, use the following formula: percent of balckium atoms†¢average mass of blackium percent of brownium atoms †¢average mass of brownium +percent of whitium atoms †¢average mass of whitium atomic mass of beaniu m Record this number in the data table. Results: Isotope| Number of beans (atoms)| Mass of beans (g)| Average mass of one bean (g)| Percent of beans| Average atomic mass of beanium| Blackium| 293| 65. 8| . 224| 62. 7%| . 43 g|Brownium | 104| 62. 5| . 60| 22. 3%| | Whitium | 70| 69. 2| . 99| 15%| | | Total: 467| | | | | To calculate the percentage of beans: Number of Beans of 1 IsotopeTotal Number of Beans To calculate the atomic mass of beanium: percent of balckium atoms†¢average mass of blackium percent of brownium atoms †¢average mass of brownium +percent of whitium atoms †¢average mass of whitium atomic mass of beanium Conclusion: In conclusion, an isotope is a variation of an element that already exists. It is different because it has more or less neutrons in its nucleus.Depending on how many isotopes one element has, the average atomic mass will change. When calculating the average atomic mass, you must include all of the isotopes which have more or less neutrons than the original element. Since neutrons have a mass of 1amu, the isotopes masses will vary, thus affecting the average atomic mass of an element. When performing this experiment, the mass of the beans were measured while the number of beans, average mass and percent of beans had to be calculated. The average mass of he beans, or isotopes, was a decimal because the weight of the beans in one sample divided by the number of beans of the same sample was not an even number. This lab simulates the various isotopes of an element because all of the beans were in the same ‘family’; however, they all looked different and had different masses. This is an example of how real elements have isotopes that may not look alike or have the same mass, but they’re still a part of that one element. As this experiment may have gotten the results shown above, when performing this experiment a second time, the results may vary.This is because not every bean is identical. If larger sa mples are used then the difference may be smaller because the larger the sample you have to work with, the closer your average will be to the actual mass. 1 source of error in this experiment may have been miscounting the number of beans. This may change the results of the 2, 4, and 5 columns of the data table. Another source of error may have been miscalculating the average mass of one bean. This would affect the answer for the atomic mass of beanium.

America Under The Constitution Of The United States Essay

Daniel Sanders Mr. Nelson AP US History 10/18/16 Founding a Nation, 1783-1789 - The founding of the new nation brought along much promise, however, it was going to be difficult for the United States to bring together its diverse population and keep control of its vast amounts of land while simultaneously trying to create a new nation. I. America Under the Constitution A. The Articles of Confederation 1. The first ratified Constitution of the United States was the Articles of Confederation, drafted by Congress in 1777 and ratified by the states four years later. a) The main idea of the Articles was to protect liberty, and therefore it turned out to be more of a treaty for mutual defense rather than a plan for a common government. b) The original form of government consisted of a one-house Congress, in which each state had one vote despite various populations. There was no president or judicial branch to balance out the power. 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Business Intelligence - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1139 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Business Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Business Inteligence Question 01. About Organization: In Switzerland UPC Cablecom is one of the largest cable television operators. Cablecom was Founded 1994 by merging smaller companies. However it was remained UPC Broadband division of Liberty Global Europes since the early 2006. UPC Cablecom gives features such as broadband web, and advanced (VoIP) telephony administrations to 2.6 million administration clients as of December 31, 2014. UPC Cablecom clients are placed in 24 of the 26 part states of Switzerland, including the significant urban areas of Bern, ZÃÆ' ¼rich, Lausanne, and Geneva. Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s across the nation system is moved up to two-path ability, with every last bit of its link homes passed was served by a system with a transfer speed of no less than 860 MHz. Furthermore, UPC Cablecom offers a scope of feature, voice, broadband web, and information administrations to business clients. These clients incorporate little and medium size organizations, huge enterprises, and wholesale accomplices all through Switzerland By utilizing the SPSS Predictive Analytics Solution, Cablecom has the capacity instantly distinguish clients at danger of agitate, upgrade its client contact procedure, diminish client procurement expenses and enhance its general consumer loyalty BI effort: Cablecom is the best example to show how an organization in worldwide industries should unleash the power of predictive analysis. Cablecom not only acquire, grow and retain valuable customers with this predictive analysis but also used to detect fraud and reduce risk within the organization. Cablecom uses the BI effort in Predictive Analysis and understand customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ behaviour. BI capabilities: BI capabilities are Organizational memories, information integration, Insight creation, Presentation. Organizational memories: This capability represents an organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s accumulated history, including da ta, information. This helps to gather all the needed data for process further. Information integration: Information Integration capability helps to address problems occur when manually integrated information. It helps to address these problems by producing synthesized content about the past and present. Insight creation: From the first two BI capabilities organization can accumulate the integrated data, and knowledge that constitute the row materials needed for insight and decision making. Insight creation capability focuses on utilization of these raw materials to produce valuable new insight and enable effective decision making based on continual rather than periodic analysis. Presentation capability: Presentation capability is the connection area between the proposed BI solution and the user who use it. Its motivation is on presenting the right information in a productive way. Overall goal is to deliver the result of insight creation capability to the users, such that th e users can make their best possible use in terms of learning as well as decision making. By using this capability Cablecom can understand its customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ needs and it can make decision to accumulate more customers. Question 02. Components in active enterprise intelligence: Active Load: Active load ensures the accuracy of the data by updates data in new real time throughout the day and ensuring information is available for specific decision making. Example: As per the demo in Teradata website, when there is a delay, they understands the loyal customers and tries to give best customer service to them. For this they needed to know who are the loyalty customers flying today. For that they need new real time data. Active access: Enterprise information can be accessed anytime, so u can answer virtually any question on any subject, any time. Example: As per the demo in Teradata website, Information about Loyalty customer, information about inventory , customer seat reservation patters, luggage details and many more details are accessed through active access process. As per the demo, all the different subject details have been answered by one system. Active events: Detects the key events and alert the user to analyse them and take appropriate action. Example: As per the demo in TeraData website, when Maria input the details of her journey, the database system analyse all the previous journey details and giving her a better option of a Flight + Hotel offer. Active workload management Let you to easily manage this dynamic work loaded environment from touch point to back office. Example: As per the demo in Teradata website, when there is a sort in plain part, they simply went through the system and understood that the part was not available in London. So they checked again and found in which store the part is available, as well as the prices of it. And all these information was taken from few clicks. Active ava ilability Business critical 7/24 system availability. Example: As per the demo in TeraData website, when there is a need of plane part, they immediately accessed the system and understand that they donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t have that specific part. So they check again and found the nearest store which hold that part. This was possible when the system is available 24/7. Active enterprise integration Enable the data warehouse to fit into your existing architecture. Example: Since the system matches organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s actual system all the required info was gathered quickly. Question 03. Development environment should be setup with new document containing some sample emails. Then resources should be loaded to do text (Name) recognition environment and makes an application to run these segments on the report in grouping. With the segmented emails, result can be seen by one of several viewers for annotations. The Gates components are good start but it sh ould be altered with people from Systemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s personnel database. There should be a tool to be created, to create a directory structure on disk that has some Java stub code, and an XML configuration file. Then compile the stubs and create a JAR file containing the new resources. Load URL of these files to the system, and the system then allows to load them in the same way that was loaded the built-in resources earlier on. A second copy of the email document should be created and saved on an Oracle Data store. Run the prepared application on the email test corpus. Then check the performance of the system to compare manual results with the systemà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s results. Then Do necessary changes and Re-initialise the resources. Repeat the above process until gets the accurate result. ANNIE gazetteer should be replaced to regenerates itself from the local personnel data. Then alters the pattern grammar in the semantic tagger to prioritise recognition of names fro m that source. This application is written in Java, so embedding is very easy: the two GATE JAR files are added to the project CLASSPATH, the new components are placed on a web server, and with a little code to do initialisation, loading of components and so on. This process will helps to automatically identify the names of people in a corporate intranet and transform them into hyperlinks to be used in a general mailer via e-mail with the help of GATE. Reference: Anon, (2015). [online] Available at: https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.412.2515rep=rep1type=pdf/ [Accessed 3, Apr. 2015]. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Business Intelligence" essay for you Create order